Global Film: Nollywood and Korean Cinema

The rise of Nollywood and Korean cinema is yet another product of globalisation. Global Film has become exponentially more prominent in the last few decades and it is the film industries of Nigeria and South Korea that have become the newest members to join the plethora of nations who are paving their way towards mainstream cross-cultural cinema.

Nigeria’s film industry, known as ‘Nollywood’, is in fact the third-largest film industry in the world. It produced a whopping 1,687 films in 2007 – and an average of 50,000 copies of these films are sold at Nigerian shops and market stalls after their release. However, Nollywood has remained relatively enclosed within the African market, as most North American and other Western audiences are still oblivious to the enormity of this $3 billion film industry. The more that is learned about Nollywood, the more impressive it becomes; with its recent birth in 1992, this industry has rocketed to success in a mere 23 years. The founder of Nollywood is credited to Kenneth Nnebue, whose film Living in Bondage was shot in just one month on a budget of $12,000. Nevertheless, the film sold over 1 million copies and created the foundation of an industry that has not only provided entertainment, but has become one of Nigeria’s “largest sources of private-sector employment.”

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The key to Nollywood’s success in Nigeria is its inherent locality; as affirmed by Okome, it explicitly caters to Nigerian audiences through the employment of Nigerian actors, Nigerian settings and its exploration of Nigerian issues. However, the styles in which Nollywood films are shot do have an indisputable global flavour, such as the common employment of melodrama paralleling that of Latin American ‘telenovelas’. This unique blend of global culture may well be Nollywood’s ticket to Western success; with 10 Nollywood related titles already available on Netflix, Nollywood has embarked on the steady climb towards global triumph within our ever-growing context of globalization.

“Nollywood is commercially-savvy. It values the entertainment of its clientele.” – Okome

Korean cinema has also been extremely successful, especially in recent years. The Korean economic boom of the 1990s created space in the Korean market to invest in filmmaking and revitalise the industry whose difficult history, matches that of the nations tumultuous past. Today, the Korean film industry is experiencing a period of incredible success. It is the 7^th largest in the world and has a huge rate of cinema attendance. Not only are Korean films popular, but they have also achieved a great level of critical acclaim – one of the most notable achievements has been Chan-wook Park’s Oldboy, which was awarded the Grand Prix prize at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.

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Extending from film, Korea has become Asia’s leading creator and exporter of pop culture. Described as the ‘Korean Wave’, phenomena such as K-Pop have stormed worldwide markets, with concert tickets to bands such as SHINee selling out “within minutes” in the UK and US. As a result, Korea has become somewhat of a ‘Queen Bee’ within Asia, which has provoked a considerable power shift in its relationships with China and Japan.

“To many young people, ‘Korea’ stands for fashionable or stylish. So they copy the Korean style.” – Wang Ying on Chinese youth

Hence, Global Film is an incredibly powerful tool in enabling the promotion of a nations culture. It also serves as a platform for further cultural exchange and through it’s complex process of production and distribution – allows many different aspects of other cultures to be applied and thus, a cross-cultural product to be created.

REFERENCES:

Bright, Jake. ‘Meet ‘Nollywood’: The Second Largest Movie Industry In The World’. Fortune. N.p., 2015. Web. 3 Sept. 2015.

Okome, O (2007). ‘Nollywood: spectatorship, audience and the sites of consumption’ Postcolonial Text, 3.2, pp. 1-21.

Onishi, Norimitsu. ‘A Rising Korean Wave: If Seoul Sells It, China Craves It – The New York Times’. Nytimes.com. N.p., 2015. Web. 3 Sept. 2015.

Paquet, Darcy. ‘A Short History Of Korean Film’. Koreanfilm.org. N.p., 2015. Web. 3 Sept. 2015.

Ryoo, W. (2009). Globalization, or the logic of cultural hybridization: the case of the Korean wave. Asian Journal of Communication, 19(2), 137-151.

Rice, Andrew. ‘The Making Of Nigeria’S Film Industry’. Nytimes.com. N.p., 2012. Web. 3 Sept. 2015.

Rousse-Marquet, Jennifer. ‘The Unique Story Of The South Korean Film Industry’. inaglobal. N.p., 2015. Web. 3 Sept. 2015.

Culture Vultures

The lengths to which the influence of film can reach has never been so broad. For decades, film has been used a tool of propaganda, to promote national identity, agenda and to advertise a country’s culture. However, held within the tight clutches of globalisation, film has become yet another facet of society that has shifted towards a much more ‘glocalised’ norm. This means that films from one nation are incorporating elements of others – may it be through the style of writing, cast, director, cinematography, plot or costuming. One such example is the recent film Mad Max: Fury Road. Although it is listed as an Australian/American film, this latest instalment of the Mad Max franchise was in fact co-written by a British comic-book artist, had a South-African female lead and used music by a Dutch producer.

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For decades, nations have developed their own cinematic styles and norms, however it is only in recent times that filmmakers have started to capitalise on the success of certain cultural elements and as a result, have integrated them into the films of their own country. As Karan and Schaefer suggest, the exchange between Asian and Western cinematic practice has been extremely successful in generating huge profits. Ang Lee’s Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon was a huge hit at the United States box office, earning a sum of $128 million. It also received great critical acclaim and was the first Asian language film to be nominated for a Best Picture Academy Award. However, there is much debate surrounding the films success. Salman Rushdie suggests Lee’s film was one of “local resistance against global Hollywood’s domination.” He proposed the success of the extremely “foreign” film may have been a sign of a possible revitalisation of America’s embrace of world cinema that was seen in the 60s and early 70s. Conversely, Derek Elley suggests the film was essentially a Hollywood production carefully interwoven with Chinese elements and was specifically constructed to appeal to a Western audience.

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It is undeniable however, that Hollywood’s adoption of Asian cinematic elements into its own films has highlighted the profitability of Eastern film components – which according toBarna William Donovan, began to bleed into American film throughout the 1990s. He suggests that throughout the decade, Hollywood action filmmaking was revolutionised through the assimilation of martial arts and wire work which gave the entire genre a “foreign feel.” Epitomising this is The Matrix franchise, which used choreography that is closely aligned to that of Asian films. One move in particular, performed by protagonist Neo, is suggested by Donovan to be identical to the signature move of protagonist Wong in Hong Kong film, Once Upon a Time in China. Once again, the popularity of these elements in The Matrix is reflected in its box office earnings, which totalled an incredible $592.4 million across the whole franchise.

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Yet, the unfortunate truth remains that film industries across all nations want to make money; and as Karan and Schaefer suggest, Asian film elements are a clear a commercial hit with box offices worldwide. For Hollywood, this means incorporating watered down Asian touches mild enough for a Western audience to stomach. For Asian filmmakers this means incorporating more Westernized elements such as a shorter running time and the sacrifice of musical numbers, as seen in Slumdog Millionaire. Yes, the birth of transnational film is well-worth celebrating, as it has undoubtedly broadened the platform for cultural exchange. However ultimately, I believe the loss of a cinematic culture at the hands of Hollywood dominance would be a tragedy no box office earning could repair.

References

Donovan, Barna. The Asian Influence Of Hollywood Action Films. 1st ed. Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland & Co., ©2008., 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

Elley, Derek. ‘Asia To ‘Tiger’: Kung-Fooey’. Variety. N.p., 2001. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

McKenzie, Steven. ‘Mad Max Writer Brendan Mccarthy’s Fury Road From Fan To Writer – BBC News’. BBC News. N.p., 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

RUSHDIE, SALMAN. ‘Can Hollywood See The Tiger?’. Nytimes.com. N.p., 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

Unknown,. ‘All-Time Top Film Franchises – Box Office’. Filmsite.org. N.p., 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

Unknown,. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: A Transnational Reading. 1st ed. 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

Unknown,. ‘Mad Max: Fury Road (2015)’. IMDb. N.p., 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

Unknown,. ‘What Is Glocalization? – Definition From Whatis.Com’. SearchCIO. N.p., 2015. Web. 2 Sept. 2015.

A Blow by Blow of Cultural Flows

It takes only a short walk through any major city to notice the powerful grip globalization has had on most facets of the modern world. Undoubtedly, this widespread hybridisation of cultures has allowed the world to become a more interconnected, interdependent and inclusive ‘global village,’ equipped with disintegrating national borders and instantaneous exchange of information. However, this has also created the perfect breeding ground for cultural imperialism to flourish. Yes, international cultures are blending; however there is an overarching Western influence that ultimately dominates.

The prevalence of multinational corporations such as McDonalds is a prime example of the extensive lengths American culture in particular can reach. The fast-food giant now has over 36,000 restaurants in 119 countries, sells more than 75 hamburgers every second and has an economy bigger than Ecuador – the sheer enormity of these figures even led philosopher Benjamin Barber to coin the phrase ‘McWorld.’

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Morgan Spurlock’s 2004 documentary Super Size Me further exposed the saturation of consumerism within American culture through his affirmation that children in the United States recognised Ronald McDonald before they recognised Jesus Christ. Although some argue that McDonalds’ implementation of localized menus is a move towards cultural heterogenization, I believe their triumph over the vast majority of the world and the overwhelming influence of the ‘golden arches,’ places them on the dark side of globalisation.

“We are not living in a global village, but in customised cottages, globally produced and locally distributed.” Manuel Castells

Despite America’s tremendous leverage on the global stage, foreign consumers are not always willing participants in the perpetuation of the nations power. Misa Mori gives an insight into this foreign perspective through her account of a protestor’s declaration at the bombing of Belgrade, “I’d rather die of thirst than drink Coca-Cola. I’d rather starve to death than eat McDonald’s.” Yet, McDonalds’ influence remains strong, and as Mori suggests, it is largely due to the continual portrayal of the “American Image.” Media in all of its forms churn out endless images of American political, military and social superiority, creating a cultural destiny other nations can’t refuse.

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Thus, the media and America have become an unbreakable duo in generating images that construct what is desirable, ‘cool,’ and what will generate power. Within pop culture, fashion is the most obvious tool used by artists to solidify their image. However, many American artists have come under fire for taking advantage of cultural fashion and practices in order to make themselves stand out. This concept of ‘cultural appropriation’ is a hot topic of debate and is largely agreed to be an extremely negative aspect of mediascapes within media and cultural flows.

The Hunger Games actress Amandla Stenberg recently released a video criticising, “pop stars and icons [who] adopt black culture as a way of being edgy and gaining attention.” This was sparked in response to images of celebrities such as Kylie Jenner wearing cornrows and Miley Cyrus, who used black women as “props” in her 2013 video ‘We Can’t Stop’.

“Cultural appropriation occurs when the appropriator is not aware of the deep significance of the culture that they are partaking in”  – Amandla Stenberg

Hence, with the immense domination of Western culture there are indisputable negatives of globalization. Nevertheless, it is impossible to deny that being able to buy a Turkish kebab at 3am on almost any street corner does have its perks.

Too Sexy for that Shirt

For debates surrounding the sexualisation of children, the media has become somewhat of a punching bag. It is suggested to have single-handedly poisoned childhood innocence through promoting a hyper-sexuality transcendent of age, gender and culture. However, with the declining age of biological adulthood, along with society’s widespread obsession with sex – the sole accusation of the media for this maturity fast-track is called into question.

As puberty is seen as a stage of transition between childhood and adulthood, the line is often blurred as to what is an appropriate portrayal for this age group in the media. The teen years are classically a time for rebellion, experimentation, self-searching and yearning for freedom. All encompassed by an immense desire to break from the shackles of parental control, teenagers often do everything in their power to prove that they are ‘adult.’ Such is the case with Disney stars such as Miley Cyrus, Selena Gomez and Lindsay Lohan who all transformed their images from childhood role models to sex icons, in a bid to solidify their maturity.

Miley Cyrus

Selena GomezLindsay Lohan

Aligning with a theory developed by JM Tanner in the 1940s, it has become evident that girls in particular are reaching puberty quicker, with the average age of menarche having decreased by five years since 1840. However, with the average Australian girl reaching this pillar of womanhood at age twelve, it seems our definition of what renders someone an adult can no longer be reliant on simply obtaining an adult body.

With this, the real problem that has risen is the idea that ‘adult’ has become synonymous with ‘sex’. A recent debate was sparked over this image, as many suggested the nine-year old model is “over-sexualised.” Critics suggest that it is the long hair and positioning of the young girl, which deems it to be of a sexual nature. The stance may not be natural or common for a young girl and thus may make her look more mature, but this immediate association of maturity with sexuality is cause for concern, particularly when it is displayed by a nine-year-old. With this mentality, a simple game of dress-ups has been polluted by a sex-orientated mindset reflective of society’s fixation with sexuality, as perpetuated by the media in all of its forms.

Equally as worrying is the sexual marketability of innocence portrayed through artists such as Ariana Grande, Britney Spears and the ‘Lolita’ fetish. Costumes symbolic of childhood, youth and innocence, such as school uniforms, have become advertising pawns in the perpetual idea that ‘sex sells.’ Extremely prevalent in Japanese culture, traditionally childish clothes such as frills and bows are used as a tool of attraction. In a recent SBS episode of the Chinese dating show ‘If You Are the One’ a male candidate overtly stated his attraction to “girls who look younger than their age,” whilst female participants continually stated their desire for an “uncle type” quality in a potential romantic partner.

Ultimately, it is the debate of what it means to be a child or an adult that lies at the heart of this issue. It is our heavily sexually saturated mindsets that are at the root of the problem, yet its defeat is not a simple one. Rather colloquially I simply suggest, we get our heads out of the gutter.

A Little Less Connotation

The intrinsic link between denotation and connotation is almost impossible to dispute in media images, particularly in the area of advertising. In this industry, references to popular culture, history and current affairs are intricately weaved amongst bold and powerful images in an attempt to evoke a desired response from consumers. Whether this is to convince buyers to purchase a particular product, donate to a certain cause, or to raise awareness of a recent injustice – semiotics are at the heart of each image’s shrill cry for attention.

The self-titled “revolutionary” product, the Wonderbra, is no exception. Created in Canada in 1964, this product has had vast array of advertising campaigns, which all reflect their various historical contexts. In this recent visual advertisement, the pivotal role of semiotics in unearthing a message is powerfully displayed.

This image was taken from Ad’s of the World, http://adsoftheworld.com/media/print/wonderbra_friends

From a purely visual perspective, this image merely hosts a figure shadowed by an obnoxious green “plus 1,” juxtaposed with the seemingly insignificant number, ‘918915’. However, to any adolescent or adult living in the developed world, it is obvious that this symbol is in fact a nod to the unofficial ‘king’ of social media, Facebook. In the context of this 2009 image, Wonderbra has cleverly used the connotation of ‘Facebook friend requests,’ which are often seen as a measure of popularity, social status and sexual desirability. Here, with the hyperbolic use of ‘918 915,’ Wonderbra claims that with the enhanced cleavage made possible with their product, an abundance of social opportunities and romantic advances will blossom. This is also reflective of its ‘noughties’ context, which was an era dismissive of the 1990’s ‘waif’ trend and more emphatic towards the sexiness of a fuller bust.

Without an understanding of Facebook’s symbolic relevance to the real-life social position of young individuals, or even of the website itself, the meaning of this advertisement becomes completely futile. Similarly, if this image had been pitched in another era, such as in a shopping mall in the middle of the 1960s, its attached connotations would be markedly different, or even non-existent. Amongst the infamous ‘Twiggy’ era, a period that launched the androgynous look as fashionable, the notion that an enhanced bust would increase your sexual desirability may have seemed preposterous; let alone the idea that ‘918915 friend requests’ on a thing called the ‘Internet’ would become an incentive to purchase an undergarment.

Roland Barthes suggests semiotic signs are used as a tool of naturalization, which means to “make dominant cultural and historical values, attitudes and beliefs seem entirely ‘natural”. This can be seen in the example of the Wonderbra advert, which uses a concurrent projection of the prevalence of Facebook (born from context), with a particular suggestion of what denotes female beauty – a notion that has endured for centuries. It is this concept that epitomises the complexity of semiotics, as something that does not solely rely on personal perspective or circumstance, but is a careful construction of ideas interlaced through time and unearthed by images.

Working with the frenemy

When I asked my mother what her biggest anxiety about the media is her answer was simply, “Rupert Murdoch.” My 16-year-old sister on the other hand worried that “it’s not true.” This immediate assumption of falsehood is a common criticism of the media and is an opinion I have admittedly shared. But why? Do I really not believe that Australia has given Vanuatu $5 million of aid, as reported by the Sydney Morning Herald? Did I truly question whether a recent Queensland drug-ring bust actually led to 22 arrests? (The Australian, 15/03/15). Surely I did not doubt New Idea’s claims that this new look of Victoria Beckham’s is ‘dramatic.’

(This picture was taken from the aptly named article, “Victoria Beckham’s dramatic new look.”)

And New Idea’s commitment to fact cannot be quarrelled in their recent story, ‘Sam Frost takes the plunge in dangerously low-cut jumpsuit,’ in which the supporting photograph certainly confirms that the ex-‘The Bachelor’ stars’ attire is in fact “somewhat daring.”

The moral? I absorbed all of these stories without a sliver of scepticism. Despite their medium, target audience, political perspective or content, I believed wholly what ‘the media’ had to say. So why do I claim not to? I believe that it has become fashionable to antagonise the rather elusive umbrella of ‘the media.’ To put it simply, we use the media as a scapegoat to avoid acknowledging our own role in allowing the immoral actions of the media to perpetuate. Those few who admit their unwavering allegiance to the words of the media are characterised as uneducated buffoons and are almost looked upon with a kind of pity, as if they haven’t caught on to a rather obvious secret. Yet in reality, is anyone immune to the media’s vacuous pull, despite our unending claims to know better? It seems the media has become our newest ‘frenemy;’ something we ‘bitch’ about relentlessly, yet will be dragged back to by the ankles at the hands of inescapability. Even as a media student myself (a new one, in my defence), I admit I will scoff in the face of headlines that question whether size 12 Christina Aguilera has “let herself go”, whilst I simultaneously Google how many calories are in peanut butter. This brings me to my wise old dad’s biggest anxiety about the media, “that it’s so powerful.”

On October 30 1938, a mass panic erupted throughout the United States in response to the radio broadcast of H.G. Well’s War of the Worlds. On April Fools Day in 1980, the International BBC radio became inundated with callers in response to their report that the first four listeners to contact the station would be given the clock-hands from Big Ben. As recently as 2006, the BBC also issued a false report, stating that French Fries were to be banned from all British schools; public outcry ensued and thus, proves the timelessness of the media’s prevailing influence at the hands of human gullibility.

So although the media has indisputably shared untruths, promoted rigid moulds of beauty/masculinity and hosts ideas saturated with social and political bias – should it really carry all the blame? Is it our own naivety that has enabled the media to evolve into a form of social dictator? Or does its ubiquity leave us no choice?

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